The skeleton in the room...

...Or should that be the elephant in the cupboard? Anyway, the thing not mentioned.

First draft of another part of the Introduction

There is an admittedly uneasy blurring – in my approach, both here and in the first When Vowels Get Together book – between printed/written letters on one hand and phonemes. I look here at vowels "before an l" for example, and list words alphabetically (referring to letters), but the letter a represents the /ɒ/ phoneme only when it follows a /w/ phoneme (as in both "swallow" and "qualify") in RBP, that is. In fact I was surprised that reviewers did not mention this – which, I suppose, might be regarded by some as a flaw.

My justification for this is based on the history of language development. Sounds always precede letters (except in special cases such as acronyms). Sometimes, the link between letters and phonemes remains firm (as in Castilian Spanish, which has a fairly reliable correspondence between letters and phonemes – nearly one-to-one, with a few exceptions). But in English this link is shakier.

The link is still there, though, when you consider the history of spellings. The common silent "gh" for example was originally an attempt to represent the sound /χ/ as in the Scottish "loch" or the German "Bach". In parts of Scotland, indeed, "night" is pronounced /nɪχt/ (as "night" was, at one time, in English); and in Northern Ireland a lake is a "lough", with (uniquely, among British English words) the final consonant /χ/.

In some cases letters have no phonemic value – as is often the case with silent letters. But in other cases there is such a link There are various reasons for this:

• The "b" in "debt" (Chaucer was writing "dette" in the fifteenth century, but later scholars imposed the "-bt" spelling in deference [some would say craven deference] to the Latin debitum.)
• The Greek "ρ" with a spiritus fortis (also known as a "rough breathing") persuaded scholars to take the word "rime" (as used by Coleridge, for example) and insist that it should be spelt with an "rh".

In other cases a "silent letter" spelling was imposed by false analogy with another word with a silent letter that had once had a phonemic value. For example both "should" and "would" had one of these "real" silent letters (the words were sceolde and wolde, the past tenses of sculan and willan). But the past tense of another word that came to be used as a modal verb (like "would" and "should") was a word that Chaucer, for example, had spelt "koude" – with no phonemic "justification" for a silent l. So, basing their suggestion on a false analogy, language "experts", (thinking "modal verbs that end /ʊd/ should share the spelling -ould "), introduced the spelling "could".

But quite often (I would guess more often than not, excepting Magic E spellings [where the presence of the e makes its presence felt, audibly, although it itself is not sounded]) the presence of a silent written letter does have some force with reference either to pronunciation at some stage in the development of the language or to etymology.

So while it would be wrong to say that written letters in English correspond to phonemes, quite often they make some reference to a real sound. Anyway, these books use alphabetical lists for convenience.

Update: 2016.05.27.12:30 – One line correction in purple. Oops.
Update: 2016.05.29.15:30 – Deletion of pleonastic "the presence of". REoops.

The road NOT travelled

This week's instalment of The Book Yet To Come is another excerpt from the first draft of  the Introduction. In it I try to limit the donkey-work, by ruling out patterns of recurrent and predictable forms.

First draft of another part of the Introduction

In compiling this collection of words I have made the following exceptions from those found in the Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners for reasons of practicability and space:

General

1. Words that have their "l" preceded by a pair of vowels.  These are already covered in When Vowels Get Together. There are very few of these words.
2. Words included in the Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners  that are in common use only in certain national standard dialects (for example rello   [Australian English] or rondavel  [South African English]). These are of limited importance for only a few students of English as a Foreign Language.
3. Words that begin with the letters "un-" in their role as negative-forming prefix – unelected etc. (Of course, this exclusion does not apply to words such "unilateral"; students of ESOL  may find  it useful to note that un- words that do not use the letters as a negative-forming prefix tend  not to have the sound /ʌ/, although they do in some [for example under ].)

Specific

*AL*

1. Adjectives ending -al (and the "-ally" adverbs derived from them). These are exceedingly numerous; including them would have almost doubled the number of -al- words. In any case there is often a derived noun – which is included (for example sabbatical, spiritual, terminal...).
2. Abstract nouns, and verbs formed from adjectives excluded by 1 (for example, abnormality, finalis/ze, professionalism...).

*EL*

1.  Adverbs formed from a word that ends with a Magic E . This results in an "-ely" ending, and words with this ending represent over 11% of all the -el- words noted in the Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners.   

2. The same restrictions apply equally  to the many adjectives  that end -ly,  often describing a personal trait [comely, lovely, shapely....], and their derivatives. 

3. Words ending in "-eless[-ly | ness]", formed from a root that  ends with a Magic E .  These are not nearly as numerous as the words described in 1, but their inclusion would have been pointless (given their regularity).

 *IL*

1. Words ending "-ily" when they are adverbs derived from adjectives ending in  "-y" (of which the Macmillan English Dictionary lists nearly 200) – so words such as "wily" are  included, but not – for example – angrily).
2. Words ending either "-ability" or "-ibility" (of which the Macmillan English Dictionary lists over 100). In these words the spelling "-il-" always represents the sound /ɪl/.
3. Words that use the prefix il- (of which the Macmillan English Dictionary lists well over 50).

Many words use the prefix tri- to introduce the idea of threeness. But you don't pronounce trilateral */trɪ`lætərəl/, nor do you pronounce  trilogy  */`traɪləʤi: /.  Since the pronunciation of this prefix is not predictable, students of ESOL will be glad to know that these words are all separately listed under the appropriate sound (/aɪ/ or /ɪ/). Note also that words starting "tri-" do not always have this as a prefix. In the word tribune, for example, the "tri-" comes from the Latin tribus ["tribe"]  although a mistaken etymological view has sometimes led to organizations setting up tribunals with three adjudicators.

*OL*

1. Words that end "-ol<vowel> tion*" (where the "*" represents any other additional suffix  - or none). The letters "ol" qualify for this special exclusion for  two reasons: In all these words the letters "ol" represent the sound /əl/.
2. These words outnumber the sum of all  "-al<vowel>tion*", "-el<vowel>tion*",  and
   "-il<vowel>tion*". (Another  exclusion applies to "-ul<vowel>tion*", but the sound that "ul" represents is different.)
3. Words ending "-ology" (and their derivatives – words ending "-ologist", "-ologism",
   "-ological" etc.) There are nearly 150 of these – more than an eighth of all *OL* words listed in the Macmillan English Dictionary; and they are perfectly regular, with /ɒ/ in  "-ology",
   "-ologous", "-ologist" and "-ologism", and /əl/ in other derivatives.  Theologian  is included because it is the only word listed with that ending; the person who practises any other "-ology" is an "-ologist" – an archaeologist, a biologist, a cardiologist... a technologist, a urologist, a zoologist and all the other experts in between.

*UL*

1. Words that end "-ul<vowel>tion*" (where the "*" represents any other additional suffix  – or none). The letters "ul" qualify for this special exclusion for two reasons:
   1. In nearly all these words the letters "ul" represent the sound /jʊl/.
   2. Exceptions can apply when there is assimilation to a preceding /t/  (resulting in /tʃʊl/), as in congratulation. However, the Macmillan English Dictionary does not apply this optional feature consistently, transcribing  capitulation with an unassimilated /tjʊl/. Besides, in a context where a speaker assimilates /t/ to /jʊl/ to give /tʃʊl/, one would expect them  to do the same, mutatis mutandis, to other dentals  – giving the assimilation of /d/ with a following /jʊl/ to /ʤʊl/. But the Macmillan English Dictionary transcribes adulation with /djʊl/. Assimilation is often a matter of context, and never forces a distinction of meaning.
   These words outnumber the sum of all words spelt "-al<vowel>tion*", "-el<vowel>tion*",  and "-il<vowel> tion*". (Another  exclusion applies to "-ol<vowel> tion*" (see below), but the sound that "ol" represents is different). 


2. Words that end "-ful[ly]". The Macmillan English Dictionary lists over 150 of these, and has three ways of transcribing them:
   
   1. With (ə)l/ – by far the commonest
   2. With /ʊl/ – usually when the word refers to a volume, e.g. spoonful, bowlful... (less than 20%)
   3. With /l/ – that is, a syllabic consonant; this occurs  in one word only – healthful
    Any audible difference between cases 1 and 2 is hard (if not impossible) to discern ,   especially in very close pairs like artful (with /ə/) and armful (with /ʊ/); possibly the transcription is influenced by the clear  sense of something being full. In any case, native speakers do not observe this distinction with any rigour, and I have never met a self-styled "rule" that requires it. Either is acceptable. Case 3 is  surely accidental; there is nothing exceptional about the pronunciation of healthful.

Update 2016.05.10.12:55 –Added statistical reflection

PS March is the cruellest month. Exhibit A is a graph showing the Blogger stats for this blog since January.

By 10 May it has had as many visitors as in the whole...

<mini_rant>
or entirety as everyone seems to be saying nowadays, in the tiresome belief that 

          syllable count ∝ intensity of feeling              

There‘s nothing wrong with entirety, but  it doesn't just mean "whole [and did you know I went to university?]".

This graph (Exhibit B, courtesy of Collins) shows a steady increase in usage over the last 300-odd years, but the graph runs out over 8 years ago, and the change I'm talking about has been happening over just that period

          </mini_rant>

....of March.

The OL truth

For some reason, there  has suddenly  been a surge in interest in this blog. After about three months of limping along at about 4 visits per day, on 25 April that increased by a factor of more than 20 (not the average – that really would be extraordinary [the daily average has gone up by more than 1 though]) . I‘m not sure what to make of this. In its 100-odd days, visits have been:

• Jan 164
• Feb  94
• Mar  75
• Apr 176
• May too early to say, but it looks as if the fever has passed.

Be that as it may, here are the latest offerings from #WVGTbk2.

First draft of "ol" >  /əl/ notes

1. acrolect
   This word is on the Macmillan English Dictionary CD, with audio samples identified as British and American. But the entry in Macmillan English Dictionary online has a URL that specifies that it is "American". It is heard in the UK, but widely regarded as very informal.
2. cabriolet
   Macmillan English Dictionary gives this transcription, but the audio sample has the vowel sound /əʊ/.
3. dissolute
   Students of ESOL should note that the ss represents /s/, whereas in dissolve the same letters represent /z/.
4. electrolyte
   This is the sole representative of words (and neologisms) that use the prefix "electro-" with the pronunciation /ɪ‘lektrəʊ/ (as in, for example, "electroplating", which is a sort of plating. This does not include words that include the morpheme electr*, as in "electron" or "electrocute" (there is no such thing as a cute).
5. gasoline
   In American English, often abbreviated to "gas" – in, for example, "gas-station". This sort of "gas" is also used, in informal British English, in the figurative expression "to have gas" (of a sportsman who accelerates or runs quickly). Use with care, as in American English "to have gas" can have a very different meaning.
6. ideologue, idiolect, and idol
   ESOL students should note that the pronunciation of the first syllable depends on the root word or morpheme. For example, in ideologue, the root is idea and the pronunciation is /aɪ/. In idiolect the root is idio- (as in idiom and even – via a remote etymological link – idiot), so the pronunciation is /ɪ/. The same often applies to other related words, such as idol/idolatry (with the initial syllable having the vowel sound /aɪ/).
7. plimsoll
   Macmillan English Dictionary gives this transcription, but the audio sample has the vowel sound /ɒ/. Some speakers use an /əʊ/ vowel for the footwear, with the vowel /ə/ reserved for the nautical Plimsoll Line (which – the name of a nineteenth-century Member of Parliament – is historically the source of the footwear name).
8. polemic and polemical
   Macmillan English Dictionary gives this transcription, but the audio sample has a suggestion of /ɒ/.
9. travolator
   The Macmillan English Dictionary calls travelator "a British spelling of travolator". Strangely, the Macmillan English Dictionary Online says the same – but with a URL that identifies it as "American".

First draft of "Magic E" notes

Preamble

Note that many of these words are compounds formed with -hole, -pole, or whole-.

1. armhole
   This is the sole representative of the many compound nouns that use -hole as a suffix. with exceptions as noted separately.
2. bargepole
   The obvious meaning is as a compound formed from barge and pole, but such poles are presumably mostly in museums. The word escapes the general exclusion specified in note 8 because of its figurative use in the collocation "wouldn‘t touch <something> with a bargepole" (expressing extreme distaste).
3. beanpole
   Like bargepole the derivation of this is obvious: support for bean plants as they grow. But this word escapes the exclusion specified in note 8 because of its figurative use in reference to a person who is very thin.
4. cubbyhole
   This escapes the exclusion made in note 1, because cubby itself is not a free-standing word – except as a dialect word meaning "squat" and (since the late nineteenth century) as an abbreviation for cubbyhole:
   

   

   diagram from Collins English Dictionary

5. hellhole
   This escapes the exclusion made in note 8, because the hell- element is metaphorical – even for people who believe that Hell is real – in this compound.
6. keyhole
   This escapes the exclusion made in note 1, because of its recent use as an adjective in metaphors.
7. lughole
   This escapes the exclusion made in note 1, because lug- is not a free-standing word (although it‘s possible that there‘s a remote etymological link to the word lug ["ear"] – the ear being used in some cases for dragging someone unwillingly).
8. maypole
   This is the sole representative of compound words formed with the suffix -pole.
9. pigeonhole
   This escapes the exclusion made in note 1, because – although it clearly refers to a hole for a pigeon – it is more commonly used as a metaphor (sometimes as a simple physical container, but also as a verb referring to the imposition of arbitrary limits).
10. poleaxed
    Students of ESOL might rightly assume that this is the third part (or past participle) of the noun/verb poleaxe, but that tool (used typically to slaughter large animals [whence the collocation "like a poleaxed ox"]) is seen chiefly in museums today, and the verb – as an infinitive – has suffered a corresponding decline. This graph from Collins English Dictionary shows this decline:

    

    diagram from Collins English Dictionary

11. pothole
    This escapes the exclusion given in note 1, because the word is in no sense a hole for a pot.
12. wholegrain
    This is the sole representative of the many compound nouns that use whole- as a prefix. with exceptions as noted separately.
13. wholesale
    This escapes the exclusion given in note 12, because no part of the sale is whole.
14. wholesome
    This escapes the exclusion given in note 12, because the etymological link with healing (as in being made whole) is not immediately apparent.
15. wormhole
    This escapes the exclusion given in note 1 because, the Macmillan English Dictionary does not give its  more recently coined metaphorical meaning (in sci-fi and astrophysics). This usage has nothing to do with worms, and the hole is a metaphorical one.

Onward.

b
Update: 2016.05.04.21:50 – Fixed a very embarrassing coding error. Apologies if you tried vainly to make sense of the original.